life cycle of stars Essay -- essays research papers

LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR Stars are formed in nebulae, interstellar clouds of dust and gas (mostly hydrogen). These stellar nurseries are abundant in the arms of spiral galaxies. In these stellar nurseries, dense parts of these clouds undergo gravitational collapse and compress to form a rotating gas globule. The globule is cooled by emitting radio waves and infrared radiation. It is compressed by gravitational forces and also by shock waves of pressure from supernova or the hot gas released from nearby bright stars. These forces cause the roughly-spherical globule to collapse and rotate. The process of collapse takes from between 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. A Central Core and a Protoplanetary Disk: As the collapse proceeds, the temperature and pressure within the globule increases, as the atoms are in closer proximity. Also, the globule rotates faster and faster. This spinning action causes an increase in centrifugal forces (a radial force on spinning objects) that causes the globule to have a central core and a surrounding flattened disk of dust (called a protoplanetary disk or accretion disk). The central core becomes the star; the protoplanetary disk may eventually coalesce into orbiting planets, asteroids, etc. Protostar: The contracting cloud heats up due to friction and forms a glowing protostar; this stage lasts for roughly 50 million years. If there is enough material in the protostar, the gravitational collapse and the heating continue. If there is not enough material in the protostar, one possible outcome is a brown dwarf (a large, not-very-luminous celestial body having a mass between 1028 kg and 84 x 1028 kg). A Newborn Star: When a temperature of about 27,000,000ÂÂ °F is reached, nuclear fusion begins. This is the nuclear reaction in which hydrogen atoms are converted to helium atoms plus energy. This energy (radiation) production prevents further contraction of the star. Young stars emit jets of intense radiation that heat the surrounding matter to the point at which it glows brightly. These narrowly-focused jets can be trillions of miles long and can travel at 500,000 miles per hour. These jets may be focused by the star's magnetic field. The protostar is now a stable main sequence star which will remain in this state for about 10 billion years. After that, the hydrogen fuel is depleted and the star begins to die. Life span: The... ...densities are shown as numbers on the the central line that defines the Main Sequence (M.S.) of stars. Most known stars lie along this line; they describe a stage in which a star reaches some fixed size and mass and commences burning of most of its hydrogen before changing to some other star type off the sequence. Star types, which are defined on the basis of stellar surface temperatures (page 20-7), are shown by the letters (O, B,...etc.) assigned to each group and evolutionary pathways for some are indicated. This particular plot also shows along the right ordinate the total time that Main Sequence stars of different masses spend on that sequence before evolving along the several principal pathways (see below); as far as we now know, stars do not completely vanish, but survive as dwarfs or Black Holes ( but the latter in principle can disappear by evaporation as Hawking radiation). Temperatures were obtained using Chandra X-ray data. BILBLIOGRAPHY www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/stars/lifecycle/ imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/lifecycles/LC_main_p1.html hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1999/20/ map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101stars.htm

Games As A Tool For Learning Education Essay

The game is an activity aimed at run intoing the demands of amusement, pleasance, emphasis alleviation, every bit good as the development of certain accomplishments and abilities.A Besides, the game is called a signifier of free look rights, non related to the accomplishment of useful intent and is a pleasance in itself. It is believed that most of the games have the undermentioned chief characteristics: Today ‘s universe is full of games even more than before.A Games, competitions, sweepstakes, lotteries have filled telecasting programs.A Gambling: slot machines, cards, roulette make immense net incomes to proprietors of chancing establishments.A Sports – football, hockey are the most popular shows, and for their members this is a high-paying work.A Films, theatres are favourite amusements with all the spectacle and leisure.A Human civilization arises and unfolds in the game.A In a wide sense of the word game covers human activity in all its manifestations.A Sing the activities of people with this point of view, we can state that people â€Å" play † a partner and parent, kid and nurse, supervisor and subordinate.A In different state of affairss, a individual performs different societal roles.A At the same clip he can play the function of position, behavior, state of affairs, etc.A There are such sorts of games: athleticss, squad games, logical games, games on th e paper, rational and developing games. All these types of games develop different accomplishments and a individual gets more cognition and experience. Developing games are the games in which there is a development or betterment of assorted skills.A The construct of developing games is associated chiefly with the childhood of human life.A Children playing in developing games train their ain thought, inventiveness, creativeness and imagination.A The types, nature, content and design are determined by the specific educational undertakings in relation to the age of kids with their development and interests.A The start the application of educational games for educational intents is allowed in a game at the age of ( 0 ) 1 twelvemonth, and depending on the kid ‘s development in each peculiar instance. There are such age groups: -for kids from 0 to 1 twelvemonth ; -for kids from 1 twelvemonth to 3 old ages ; -for kids from 3 old ages to 7 old ages ; -for kids older than 7 old ages and grownups ; The types of the games include: dough for sculpting, pigments, applications, mystifier, etc. Playing and learning.A Expression â€Å" educational game † is non right, because it comes from the false premiss that you can larn, sing ennui or to play, and non to comprehend the information.A Good game, which is interesting, ever teaches something, and in any good preparation exercising there is an component of the game. Nowadays games have become the resource that helps kids and grownups perceive the information, as there are new advanced attacks that help to explicate everything better and as a consequence people remember easy. A typical characteristic of games is a combination of repeat and surprise.A Therefore, the art of compiler games is in the right dose of repeat and surprise. However, the game is the first thing that a individual wants to play, and though this want may non be wholly motivated, it is still a extremely single. Games do non automatically take to learning.A If we want to guarantee changeless communicating between the game and instruction at the school, so this can be achieved merely by conveying the spirit of the game in the ordinary school life, instead than merely utilizing some educational games.A The instructor, as an organiser of the game should open up the seeds of its ain game started and should learn, presenting into the procedure of larning the elements of the game. Construction of the educational procedure is based on cognition of the construction of educational activities, and other psychological features built-in to the schoolboy.A This cognition is chiefly incorporated in the course of study ; they determine the methods and techniques of training.A But since they are present at that place in a hidden, inexplicit signifier, the instructor would be helpful to follow the trust on a psychological phenomenon that suggests one method or another that changes in preparation activities or the individuality of the pupil it should entail.A For illustration, the thought of the types of preparation activities and their relationship to take to the usage at certain phases of the materialized signifier of action with a assortment of strategies, thoughts about the formation and transportation techniques of cognitive activity, to organize them at assorted educational stuffs, etc. It is known that in preschool age acquisition of new cognition in the game is much more successful than in the classroom.A The kid, fascinated by an attractive construct of the new game, as if no notice of what he learns, although he now and so faces troubles, which require accommodation of its representations and cognitive activity.A In today ‘s pre-school educational teaching method and instruction, the value of the game in the rule is recognized.A The game is merely a tool for a kid to be able to larn what he still can non. However, the tremendous potency of educational games ( didactic, games with regulations, etc. ) are by and large non used.A The repertory of these games is really hapless and covers a narrow scope of undertakings, particularly small concerted games that involve the whole group.A There are virtually no games aimed at the development of strong-minded, moral qualities of the individual and the formation of human dealingss between kids. Educational game – this is non any action with didactic stuff and is non a game response at the compulsory preparation sessions.A This is specific, full and quite content for kids ‘s ‘ activities and besides it has its motivations and its methods of action. Developing games are characterized by the fact that they contain a ready game program, proposed by the kid, the drama stuff, and rules.A The end of a game ever has two facets: 1 ) cognitive, for illustration, what should we learn a kid, what modes of action with the objects we want him to reassign, 2 ) educational, for illustration, the ways of cooperation, signifiers of communicating and relationships to other people who should educate kids. In both instances the end of the game should be formulated non as a transportation of specific cognition and accomplishments, every bit good as the development of certain mental procedures or abilities of the kid. The game program is that the game state of affairs, in which the kid is introduced, and which he perceives as his own.A This is achieved if underdeveloped games are based on the specific demands and dispositions of kids, every bit good as characteristics of their experience.A The attraction of certain things gives a significance to their activities.A In all instances, the game program is implemented in bet oning activities that are offered to a kid when the game took topographic point. Game action ever includes a acquisition job, which all kids have, indispensable to personal success in the game and their emotional connexion with other participants. Action larning undertaking requires the kid ‘s active rational and volitional attempt, but it besides gives the greatest satisfaction.A The content of the preparation undertakings can be rather varied: Make non run in front of clip or name of the topic, clip to happen the image for some clip, memorise a few points, etc. Finally, an of import characteristic of the game is the game rules.A Rules of the game are brought to mind the kids of the program, game action and acquisition undertaking. For the game to actuate kids and to impact them personally, an grownup must go a direct participant.A By their actions, emotional communicating with big kids involves them in joint activities, doing it an of import and meaningful to them.A It becomes like a centre of attractive force in the game.A It is really of import in the early phases of acquiring acquainted with the new game, particularly for younger preschoolers.A At the same clip an grownup arranges the game, and so it helps kids to get the better of troubles, to promote conformity and to observe their errors.A The combination of two different grownup functions – participant and organiser is an of import characteristic in developing the game. Due to the fact that the educational game includes active and meaningful activities for kids, which he volitionally and voluntarily activates, the new experience gained in it, it becomes his personal belongings, as it can be easy applied in other contexts ( and hence the demand to consolidate the new knowledgeA disappears ) .A In add-on, many games teach kids to move â€Å" in head † , to believe what liberates the imaginativeness of kids, develops their originative abilities and capacities. Educational game is a reasonably effectual manner of organizing such qualities as organisation, self-denial, etc. The joint nature of the game is of a great importance, in which the instructor and equal group encourages the kid to follow with the regulations, for illustration, the witting control of their actions.A As a effect of a underdeveloped game, a kid learns the regulations of the game better, uses his originative thought and gives his new thoughts and takes determinations. Gradually, there are requirements to the formation of witting behaviour and self-denial, which is the practical development of moral standards.A Game regulations are like normal behaviour in a group, conveying a new societal experience.A All in all, developing games are really helpful for kids and grownups. They help to happen originative thoughts, to understand of import things and to look at the state of affairs at a different angle. Therefore, in early childhood developing games contain a versatile environment for the formation of the most valuable qualities of the individual.A However, to do their development effectual, there should be consistence in the choice of games.

Hypnosis. Psychological and Physical Aspects of Hypnosis

| Hypnosis. Psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis. Hypnosis is a natural state of mind that can be used for many purposes, in different settings. Nowadays research in the field of hypnosis and associated areas has blossomed and there are valuable evidence that hypnosis has real and measurable affects on both body and mind. During this essay I will be describing what is hypnosis including what the psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis are, further I will be discussing the role of relaxation in hypnotherapy. We experience the â€Å"hypnotic state† in everyday life and it often occurs without recognition as such. It is believed that our mind can drift from alert state into different level of consciousness whenever we do activities in automatic mode, like driving, jogging, taking a shower, walking, etc. These are hypnotic-like trances. The main differences between these sorts of trance and clinical hypnosis are specific motivation and suggestions to achieve some desired results. Therapist may use hypnosis to explore patient’s unconsciousness, to identity whether past events or experiences are associated with causing a problem. One of the most accepted axioms of hypnotherapy that nothing can be done with hypnosis that cannot be done without. Barber (1969) offered considerable experimental evidence for â€Å"Anything you can do I can do†¦ † At the same time, since hypnosis occurs spontaneously in therapy as well as in ordinary life it is impossible to ignore the part played by hypnosis in the service of the patient. It is important to understand that no two individuals will have identical experience as they progress from the state of alertness to a deep trance. The impact of hypnosis on a person's subsequent actions is dependent upon how suggestible that particular individual happens to be, a quality that can differ from one person to the next. Each person experiences the hypnotic phenomenon in his or her own way. However, it has been recognized that suggestions during the hypnosis could influence the physical processes in the body and in the brain. The earliest references of hypnosis date back to ancient Egypt and Greece. Both cultures had religious centres where people came for help with their problems. Hypnosis was used to induce dreams, which were then analysed to get to the root of the trouble. The man who most people associate with the beginning of hypnosis is an Austrian doctor Franz Anton Mesmer (1733-1815). Mesmer believed that a â€Å"cosmic fluid† could be stored in inanimate objects, such as magnets, and transferred to patients and cure them of illness. Eventually Mesmer discarded the magnets and regarded himself as a magnet through which a fluid life force could be conducted and transmitted to others as a healing force. He incorporated that into the theory of â€Å"animal magnetism†. Despite the fact that no evidence supports the existence of that theory, he had tremendous success. Mesmerism became the forerunner of hypnotic suggestion. Meanwhile, the marquise de Puysegur, believed that the â€Å"cosmic fluids† was not magnetic, but electric, that generated in plants and animals. Puysegur used the natural environment to fill his patients with healing electric fluid. During that activity some of the patients entered a somnambulistic state (a deep trance). The marquis had discovered the hypnotic trance, but had not identified it as such. Another forward thinker in the mid 1800 was a professor at London University, John Elliotson (1791-1868), who use the hypnotic state to relieve pain during the surgical operations. In India, a British surgeon, James Esdaile (1808-1859) recognised the enormous benefits of hypnosis for pain relief and performed hundreds of major operations using hypnosis as his only anaesthetic. This was accomplished by inducing the trance state to the patient weeks before the surgery and offering posthypnotic suggestions to numb the part of the body on which the operation was to be performed. The next real pioneer of hypnosis in Britain in the late 1800s was James Braid (1795-1860), who gave mesmerism a scientific explanation. He believed mesmerism to be a â€Å"nervous sleep† and coined the word hypnosis, from Greek word Hypnos, meaning sleep. He discovered that getting a patient to fixate upon something was one of the most important components of putting them into a trance. The French scientists were also taking the interest in the subject of hypnosis, and many breakthroughs were made by Ambroise Leibeault (1823-1904), a neurologist Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) and Charles Richet (1850-1935). Ambroise Leibeault and Hippolyte Bernheim (1837-1919) were the first who asserted that expectation is a most important factor in the induction of hypnosis and suggestibility is its essential symptom. The work of another Frenchman, Emile Coue (1857 – 1926), was very interesting. He is most famous for the phrase ‘Day by day in every way I am getting better and better'. His technique was one of affirmation and his idea was that the imagination is always more powerful than the will. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was also interested in hypnosis at this time. He was using it in his work, but eventually abandoned it in favour of psychoanalysis. With the rise of psychoanalysis in the first half of this century, hypnosis declined in popularity. Milton Erickson (1901-1980) is considered the leading authority of clinical hypnosis. Nowadays Erickson approach to hypnosis without question is the most effective. There are many physical and psychological problems can be effectively controlled by the use of hypnosis. Patients suffering with chronic illnesses such as cancer, arthritis, stroke and multiple sclerosis can benefits from hypnosis in many ways. In all this entire spectrum of diseases, pain is one of the most common symptoms. The most distressing an aspect of pain is the loss of control the patient feels. Through hypnosis is possible to show patients how they can use their own mind to change the subjective feeling of pain, restoring that sense of control and make patient feel empowered. Increased self-esteem, developing more positive attitude may even decrease the use of pharmacological agents. When done properly, hypnosis holds several advantages over drugs. It has no side effects, while drugs can leave a sense of dependence for the patient. Hypnosis not only gives the ability to relieve the pain, but removes the ever-present fear of pain’s return. For certain types of breast and thyroid surgery, a combination of hypnosis and local anaesthesia can aid in the healing process, and can reduce drug use and time spent in the hospital, according to studies reported at Euroanaesthesia 2011 in Amsterdam. According to the researchers, women who were hypnotized spent a few minutes more in the operating room (122 vs. 116  min), perioperative drug use was reduced, as was time in the recovery room and in the hospital. No patient in the hypnosis group converted to general anaesthesia during surgery. The major benefit is that hypnosis is modifying the cognitive response to sensation points, changing the expectations and reducing stress. Hypnosis can be especially helpful when dealing with diseases that have psychosomatic aspects, such as psoriasis, eczema, asthma. Study reviled that using hypnotherapy can improve those conditions. It concluded that the greater the depth of hypnosis the patient achieved the greater the improvement in patient’s condition. Using the relaxation techniques and post-hypnotic suggestion to discharge anxiety can significantly reduce the stress, which is a well known trigger for psychosomatic disorders. Hypnotherapy deals with psychological and physical disorders in variety of way. There are countless types of suggestion that can be given to patients while there in trance. Patients can even be age-regressed back to a time before they have been ill, injured or distressed and then received comfort and reassurance followed by relief. Imaginary, visualisation, metaphors are also the key factors in hypnosis. Through training the mind to imagine the desired outcome can help bring the desired result. This technique has great success in sport and help to achieve the peak performance. Relaxation is the first resource in hypnotherapy intervention that enhances the process of healing and recovery. Researchers have shown that being to tense or living with too much stress has a significant negative impact on our life. It can lead to physical illnesses and many psychological issues. The effect from relaxation on our body and mind is enormous. Relaxation in hypnotherapy helps in 3 ways; its completely turning off the sympathetic nervous system, changing our reaction to stressful events and build up our parasympathetic nervous system. The first goal in hypnosis is to achieve a very deep state of relaxation where our mind is more focused and the connections between our thoughts, emotions and behaviour are clearer. This type of therapy is very helpful to reduce anxiety, distress and fear. This is can be done in a trance state by guiding the patient through imaginary and visualisation. Once a patient is able to get into that state, the goal becomes lengthening the period of relaxation and teaching the patient how to control these internal images on his own. Most people will feel certain degree of anxiety in everyday life. Such feeling are generally reasonable and appropriate and it is only if that anxiety is exaggerated in intensity or duration, prevents to perform a required task or interfere with person’s life to a significant degree, than it is begins to regard as pathological reaction. Not surprisingly, using relaxation techniques can be very effective when patient get the rising heart and panic attack. This is another category of pathological anxiety reactions that includes phobic attacks to spiders, mice, rats, snakes, lizards and other creatures. Patients with such phobic reaction may be taught to rehearse so that every time they begin to get the racing heart signifying panic to that person, they begin to use their learned techniques of imagery to put their mind in a more relaxed place. The relaxation techniques can be used along with biofeedback instrument to increase the effectiveness of relaxation. Biofeedback is a tool which gives immediate and objective evidence to the patient of his ability to control such processes as heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, skin resistance and blood pressure. To those patients who are able to response moderately well to hypnosis, it offers a means of achieving some degree of voluntary or self-mediated control over these pathological reactions. It is important to ensure that anxiety is not the expression of underlying depression or major psychiatric disorder that is not yet manifest. Hypnosis has both a diagnostic and therapeutic role in eating disorders. For example, during hypnosis patients can uncover their past traumas or feeling of deserving self-punishment. Dr. Moshe S. Torem describes introducing hypnosis to eating disorders patient initially in the form of self-hypnosis, framed as a technique to improve calmness and relaxation. It appears that hypnotherapy is quite popular and sufficient way that could help you to illuminate negative behaviour patterns or bad habits. Focused relaxation techniques are used to modifier person behaviour and change the way one thinks about addictions and habits that affect the quality of life. Hypnosis connects modern practice with practices that have been used by ancient Egyptian and enlightened Zen masters. It informs our understanding of how the mind connects with the body, as well as how conscious mind connect with the unconscious. Hypnosis can be applied in physical and psychosomatic disorders in many ways. First, it can be effective in reducing pain and discomfort. Secondly, hypnotic techniques can contribute substantially to the reduction of distress, anxiety and fears. Thirdly, it can be employed to influence the psychological processes that can give the power and the ability to patients to improve their life in an infinite number of ways. Hellmut W. A. Karle and Jennifer H. Boys 2010. Hypnotherapy. A Practical Handbook Journals online. Journal of Health Psychology. The physical, Psychological and Social Impact of Psoriasis. Josie Hadley and Carol Staudacher 2002. Hypnosis for Change. Michael Heap and Windy Dryden. Hypnotherapy. A Handbook Medscape CME Nursing. Journal online. Euroanaesthesia 2011. , Combination of hypnosis and local anaesthesia for certain types of breast and thyroid surgery. www. ibshypnosis. com Clinical hypnosis: Something for you? By Olafur S. Palsson, Psy. D. www. hypnosisexpert. co. uk Top 5 Most Effective Uses for Hypnotherapy. By Anna Aengel 2010 www. systemthinker. com Hypnosis Past, Present and Future: Its Medical and Psychiatric Applications by Howard Ditkoff M. D. www. innerhealhstudio. com Relaxation Therapy For Body and Mind. By Candi Raudebaugh.

Virginia Apgar Biography, Creator of Key Newborn Test

Virginia Apgar Biography, Creator of Key Newborn Test Virginia Agpar  (1909-1974) was a physician, educator, and medical researcher who developed the Apgar Newborn Scoring System, which increased infant survival rates. She famously warned that use of some anesthetics during childbirth negatively affected infants and was a pioneer in anesthesiology, helping to raise the respect for the discipline. As an educator at the March of Dimes, she helped refocus the organization from polio to birth defects. Early Life and Education Virginia Apgar was born in Westfield, New Jersey. Coming from a family of amateur musicians, Apgar played violin and other instruments, and became a skilled musician, performing with the Teaneck Symphony. In 1929, Virginia Apgar graduated from Mount Holyoke College, where she studied zoology and a premed curriculum. During her college years, she supported herself by working as a librarian and waitress. She also played in the orchestra, earned an athletic letter, and wrote for the school paper. In 1933, Virginia Apgar graduated fourth in her class from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and became the fifth woman to hold a surgical internship at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital, New York. In 1935, at the end of the internship, she realized that there were few opportunities for a female surgeon. In the middle of the Great Depression, few male surgeons were finding positions and bias against female surgeons was high. Career Apgar transferred to the relatively new medical field of anesthesiology, and spent 1935-37 as a resident in anesthesiology at Columbia University, the University of Wisconsin, and Bellevue Hospital, New York. In 1937, Virginia Apgar became the 50th physician in the US certified in anesthesiology. In 1938, Apgar was appointed Director of the Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center - the first woman to head a department at that institution. From 1949-1959, Virginia Apgar served as professor of anesthesiology at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. In that position she was also the first female full professor at that University and the first full professor of anesthesiology at any institution. The Agpar Score System In 1949, Virginia Apgar developed the Apgar Score System (presented in 1952 and published in 1953), a simple five-category observation-based assessment of newborn health in the delivery room, which became widely used in the United States and elsewhere. Before the  use of this system, delivery room attention was largely focused on the mothers condition, not the infants, unless the infant was in obvious distress. The Apgar Score looks at five categories, using Apgars name as a mnemonic: Appearance (skin color)Pulse (heart rate)Grimace (reflex irritability)Activity (muscle tone)Respiration (breathing) While researching the systems effectiveness, Apgar noted that cyclopropane as an anesthetic for the mother had a negative effect on the infant, and as a result, its use in labor was discontinued. In 1959, Apgar left Columbia for Johns Hopkins, where she earned a doctorate in public health, and decided to change her career. From 1959-67, Apgar served as head of division of congenital malformations National Foundation - the March of Dimes organization - , which she helped refocus from polio to birth defects. From 1969-72, she was the director of basic research for the National Foundation, a job that included lecturing for public education. From 1965-71, Apgar served on the board of trustees at  Mount Holyoke College. She also served during those years as a lecturer at Cornell University, the first such medical professor in the United States to specialize in birth defects. Personal Life and Legacy In 1972, Virginia Apgar published Is My Baby All Right?, co-written with Joan Beck, which became a popular parenting book. In 1973, Apgar lectured at Johns Hopkins University, and from 1973-74, she was the senior vice president for medical affairs, National Foundation. In 1974, Virginia Apgar died in New York City. She never married, saying I havent found a man who can cook. Apgars hobbies included music (violin, viola, and cello), making musical instruments, flying (after age 50), fishing, photography, gardening, and golf. Awards and Accolades Four honorary degrees (1964-1967)Ralph Walders Medal, American Society of AnesthesiologistsGold Medal of Columbia UniversityWoman of the Year, 1973, Ladies Home JournalAmerican Academy of Pediatrics prize named after  herMount Holyoke College created an academic chair in her name

Example of ANOVA Calculation

Example of ANOVA Calculation One factor analysis of variance, also known as ANOVA, gives us a way to make multiple comparisons of several population means. Rather than doing this in a pairwise manner, we can look simultaneously at all of the means under consideration. To perform an ANOVA test, we need to compare two kinds of variation, the variation between the sample means, as well as the variation within each of our samples. We combine all of this variation into a single statistic, called the ​F statistic because it uses the F-distribution. We do this by dividing the variation between samples by the variation within each sample. The way to do this is typically handled by software, however, there is some value in seeing one such calculation worked out. It will be easy to get lost in what follows. Here is the list of steps that we will follow in the example below: Calculate the sample means for each of our samples as well as the mean for all of the sample data.Calculate the sum of squares of error. Here within each sample, we square the deviation of each data value from the sample mean. The sum of all of the squared deviations is the sum of squares of error, abbreviated SSE.Calculate the sum of squares of treatment. We square the deviation of each sample mean from the overall mean. The sum of all of these squared deviations is multiplied by one less than the number of samples we have. This number is the sum of squares of treatment, abbreviated SST.Calculate the degrees of freedom. The overall number of degrees of freedom is one less than the total number of data points in our sample, or n - 1. The number of degrees of freedom of treatment is one less than the number of samples used, or m - 1. The number of degrees of freedom of error is the total number of data points, minus the number of samples, or n - m.Calculate the mean square of error. T his is denoted MSE SSE/(n - m). Calculate the mean square of treatment. This is denoted MST SST/m - 1.Calculate the F statistic. This is the ratio of the two mean squares that we calculated. So F MST/MSE. Software does all of this quite easily, but it is good to know what is happening behind the scenes. In what follows we work out an example of ANOVA following the steps as listed above. Data and Sample Means Suppose we have four independent populations that satisfy the conditions for single factor ANOVA. We wish to test the null hypothesis H0: ÃŽ ¼1 ÃŽ ¼2 ÃŽ ¼3 ÃŽ ¼4. For purposes of this example, we will use a sample of size three from each of the populations being studied. The data from our samples is: Sample from population #1: 12, 9, 12. This has a sample mean of 11.Sample from population #2: 7, 10, 13. This has a sample mean of 10.Sample from population #3: 5, 8, 11. This has a sample mean of 8.Sample from population #4: 5, 8, 8. This has a sample mean of 7. The mean of all of the data is 9. Sum of Squares of Error We now calculate the sum of the squared deviations from each sample mean. This is called the sum of squares of error. For the sample from population #1: (12 – 11)2 (9– 11)2 (12 – 11)2 6For the sample from population #2: (7 – 10)2 (10– 10)2 (13 – 10)2 18For the sample from population #3: (5 – 8)2 (8 – 8)2 (11 – 8)2 18For the sample from population #4: (5 – 7)2 (8 – 7)2 (8 – 7)2 6. We then add all of these sum of squared deviations and obtain 6 18 18 6 48. Sum of Squares of Treatment Now we calculate the sum of squares of treatment. Here we look at the squared deviations of each sample mean from the overall mean, and multiply this number by one less than the number of populations: 3[(11 – 9)2 (10 – 9)2 (8 – 9)2 (7 – 9)2] 3[4 1 1 4] 30. Degrees of Freedom Before proceeding to the next step, we need the degrees of freedom. There are 12 data values and four samples. Thus the number of degrees of freedom of treatment is 4 – 1 3. The number of degrees of freedom of error is 12 – 4 8. Mean Squares We now divide our sum of squares by the appropriate number of degrees of freedom in order to obtain the mean squares. The mean square for treatment is 30 / 3 10.The mean square for error is 48 / 8 6. The F-statistic The final step of this is to divide the mean square for treatment by the mean square for error. This is the F-statistic from the data. Thus for our example F 10/6 5/3 1.667. Tables of values or software can be used to determine how likely it is to obtain a value of the F-statistic as extreme as this value by chance alone.

Supporting your Claim Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Supporting your Claim - Essay Example Either way it is prudent and sometimes demands of the situation to produce objective and verifiable evidence to bring the point home for the readers. The facts should have permanence and universality and pass the test of time. The assertions you are making, the information, news and opinion you are giving, the facts, data and revelations you are presenting are all your ‘claims’ that needs be properly supported with objective evidence. Maxine C. Hairston says, â€Å"we all use another common thought pattern, that of assertion and support. We do that when we make a claim, and then back it up with reason†. (p57). Backing and supporting is done by citing authorities and studies in a manner to be understood and accepted by to the readers. You are obliged to adapt a tune and style appealing to the readers and entice them to a willing suspension of disbelief as stated by Coleridge in his Biographia Literaria.. Supporting your claim is important because â€Å"Professors are skeptical who expect authors to back their claims with evidence and rational arguments. As you draft your paper, try to anticipate at what points your readers might ask â€Å"How do you know?† or â€Å"What evidence do you have for that statement?† (Hairston, p5). Giving a universal appeal and acceptance to a piece of composition, the â€Å"claims† in an essay must therefore be supported by objective and verifiable evidences, otherwise the essay will turn into fiction or a fairy tale and would not appeal to the reason of the readership. The writer must therefore know his â€Å"claims† and must know the answer to question like â€Å"how do you know?† or â€Å"how can you claim?† An essay should hold the reader’s attention and have sublimity which comes with authentication of the facts narrated in the essay. The facts narrated should be universal and not limited in scope only known and understood in a local culture. They should also pass the test of

Political Ideologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Political Ideologies - Essay Example Marx’s opinion about ideology and its implications emphasizes on mystification and class system. It is believed by Marxists that the term ideology in politics gained a controversial nature from the fact that it forces interests of the ruling class on society thus class system is made a key element of ideology. The ideas of the ruling class always become the ruling ideas which have to be accepted by those who lack the means of mental production because the ruling class acquires control over the means of mental production also. Regarding the origin of the term ideology, it was first coined during the French Revolution when it was opinioned that political ideology would grow up to become the queen of all sciences. The original meaning of this term lost its value in the coming years to be replaced by Marx’s use of the term and the interest taken by generations of Marxists in the new color ascribed to ideology by Marx explains the popularity of ideology as a key science in modern social and political world. Ideology is also largely thought of as a manifestation of power in that it not only develops a class system but also supports a system of unequal class power in a society. This means that the ideas of the ruling class become an ideology which has to be accepted by those who are less powerful in a society no matter how exploitative the implications of that ideology may turn out to be. The ruling ideas of any age make up an ideology which explains why this term keeps changing colors with every age. Ho wever, in later years the term ideology in politics was separated from any negative connotations like mystification and class position as suggested by Marx which also largely put an end to the cold war between science and ideology. The journey of the term ideology suffered huge ups and down with the emergence of dictatorships like Nazi in Germany and Stalinist in Russia when the scholars began to use the term ideology